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The Nature of Writing
A Theory of Grapholinguistics
Dimitrios Meletis ORCID iD icon

Writing is an eclectic phenomenon whose many facets are studied by the young interdisciplinary field of grapholinguistics. Linguistically, writing is a system of graphic marks that relate to language. Under the lens of processing, it is a method of producing and perceiving utterances with our hands, eyes, and brains. And from a communication theoretical and sociolinguistic perspective, it is an utterly personal medium that allows users not only to convey messages to others but also to associate themselves with cultures or ideologies. These perspectives must merge to become the foundation of a functional theory of grapholinguistics that aims not only to describe how writing systems are built but to explain why they are built that way. Starting with a unified framework that allows the description of all types of writing systems with comparative concepts (such as grapheme) and moving towards the incorporation of evidence from disciplines such as psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics to arrive at explanations, this book establishes the cornerstones of such a functional theory of writing. The Nature of Writing is a collection of ideas about writing, a status report about relevant research, a discovery of desiderata, and a new perspective. It is a start, but most importantly, it is an invitation.

Dimitrios Meletis is a linguist specializing in grapholinguistics. He holds a PhD in Linguistics from the University of Graz and is currently a postdoc researcher at the University of Zurich. The motivation behind his grapholinguistic research is his fascination for typography and calligraphy on the one hand and his love for language on the other. He has written a book on graphetics (2015) and articles on central grapholinguistic concepts including the grapheme (2019) and allography (2020).

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36824/2020-meletis


  • Acknowledgments — xi
  • I Introduction — 1
  • II Description — 19
    • 1 Graphetics — 31
      • 1.1 Subbranches — 35
      • 1.2 Cartography of the surface: Graphetic levels and units — 38
        • 1.2.1 Micrographetics: elementary forms, graphs, basic shapes — 39
        • 1.2.2 Mesographetics: one-dimensional graphetic sequence, line — 49
        • 1.2.3 Macrographetics: two-dimensional graphetic sequence, page/layout — 51
        • 1.2.4 Paragraphetics — 53
      • 1.3 Towards a typology of scripts — 54
    • 2 Graphematics — 61
      • 2.1 Prologue: The relationship between language, speech, and writing — 65
      • 2.2 Grapheme — 77
        • 2.2.1 Different conceptions of grapheme — 78
        • 2.2.2 Redefining the grapheme — 92
        • 2.2.3 The grapheme and subsegmental graphematic components in Chinese — 97
        • 2.2.4 The grapheme in abjads, abugidas, and syllabaries — 99
      • 2.3 Written variation and allography — 105
        • 2.3.1 Graphetic variation and allography — 107
        • 2.3.2 Graphematic variation and allography — 111
        • 2.3.3 The status of capitalization — 115
        • 2.3.4 Non-allographic graphematic variation — 117
        • 2.3.5 Orthographic variation — 119
        • 2.4 Graphematic syllable and graphotactics — 120
        • 2.4.1 German and other alphabets using Roman script — 120
        • 2.4.2 Alphabets using scripts other than Roman — 123
        • 2.4.3 Syllabaries — 126
        • 2.4.4 Graphotactics — 131
      • 2.5 Graphematic word — 133
      • 2.6 Graphematic sentence and punctuation — 137
      • 2.7 Writing system typology — 142
      • 2.8 Epilogue: Dependency and autonomy revisited  — 151
    • 3 Orthography — 155
      • 3.1 Features of orthography — 159
      • 3.2 Types of orthographic rules — 164
      • 3.3 Sketch of a comparative orthography — 171
      • 3.4 Orthography reforms — 174
  • III Explanation — 177
    • 4 Prolegomena — 181
      • 4.1 Evaluation of writing systems — 181
      • 4.2 Naturalness Theory — 187
        • 4.2.1 Levels of naturalness — 193
        • 4.2.2 Natural processes — 198
        • 4.2.3 Naturalness parameters — 206
        • 4.2.4 Methodology and evidence — 213
    • 5 Systematic fit — 217
      • 5.1 Graphetics — 217
      • 5.2 Orthography — 228
    • 6 Linguistic fit — 231
      • 6.1 Unit of representation — 233
      • 6.2 Iconicity — 236
      • 6.3 Indexicality — 244
      • 6.4 Transparency — 245
      • 6.5 Uniformity — 251
      • 6.6 Compositional transparency — 254
      • 6.7 Positional transparency — 256
      • 6.8 Figure—ground — 257
    • 7 Processing fit — 263
      • 7.1 Graphetics — 263
        • 7.1.1 Graphetic features relevant in processing — 265
        • 7.1.2 Production — 277
        • 7.1.3 Perception and cognition — 288
      • 7.2 Graphematics — 302
        • 7.2.1 Unit of processing — 305
        • 7.2.2 Iconicity — 308
        • 7.2.3 Indexicality — 315
        • 7.2.4 Transparency — 317
        • 7.2.5 Uniformity — 320
        • 7.2.6 Compositional transparency — 320
        • 7.2.7 Positional transparency — 322
        • 7.2.8 Figure—ground  — 327
      • 7.3 Orthography — 336
    • 8 Sociocultural fit — 339
      • 8.1 Graphetics — 340
      • 8.2 Graphematics — 348
      • 8.3 Orthography — 367
  • IV Discussion — 383
  • V Conclusion — 397
  • VI Continuation — 403
  • VII References — 405
  • VIII Index — 445

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AUTHOR = {Berg, Kristian},
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@INCOLLECTION{bpw16,
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AUTHOR = {Boone, Elizabeth H.},
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AUTHOR = {Bredel, Ursula},
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AUTHOR = {Coulmas, Florian},
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AUTHOR = {Coulmas, Florian},
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@INCOLLECTION{d17,
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@BOOK{db96,
EDITOR = {Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright},
TITLE = {The world's writing systems},
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PUBLISHER = {OUP},
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@MASTERSTHESIS{d11a,
AUTHOR = {Drews, Catharina},
TITLE = {Werden längenhaltige Wörter schneller gelesen als längenlose?},
SCHOOL = {Universität Oldenburg},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
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EDITOR = {Felix K. Ameka and Alan Dench and Nicholas Evans},
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YEAR = {2017},
EDITION = {27},
PUBLISHER = {Dudenredaktion},
ADDRESS = {Berlin},
}

@BOOK{dc,
AUTHOR = {Duden},
TITLE = {Duden. Die dutsche Rechtschreibung},
YEAR = {2020},
EDITION = {28},
PUBLISHER = {Dudenredaktion},
ADDRESS = {Berlin},
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EDITION = {4},
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@ARTICLE{f08,
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@BOOK{f15,
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EDITION = {4},
PUBLISHER = {Winter},
ADDRESS = {Heidelberg},
SERIES = {Kurze Einführungen in die germanistische Linguistik},
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AUTHOR = {Fuhrhop, Nanna},
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YEAR = {2018},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Angelika Wöllstein and Peter Gallmann and Mechthild Habermann and Manfred Krifka},
PAGES = {587-616},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110490992-020},
SERIES = {Germanistische Sprachwissenschaft um 2020},
VOLUME = {1},
}

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YEAR = {2009},
VOLUME = {218},
PAGES = {127-155},
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@INCOLLECTION{fb16,
AUTHOR = {Fuhrhop, Nanna and Franziska Buchmann},
TITLE = {Graphematische Silbe},
BOOKTITLE = {Handbuch Laut, Gebärde, Buchstabe},
YEAR = {2016},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Ulrike Domahs and Beatrice Primus},
SERIES = {Handooks of Linguistic Knowledge},
VOLUME = {2},
PAGES = {356-376},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110295993-020},
}

@ARTICLE{fbb11,
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TITLE = {The length hierarchy and the graphematic syllable},
JOURNAL = {Written Language and Literacy},
YEAR = {2011},
VOLUME = {14},
NUMBER = {2},
PAGES = {275-292},
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YEAR = {2013},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
PUBLISHER = {Metzler},
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@ARTICLE{fs14,
AUTHOR = {Fuhrhop, Nanna and Karsten Schmidt},
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YEAR = {2014},
VOLUME = {136},
NUMBER = {4},
PAGES = {538-568},
DOI = {10.1515/bgsl-2014-0047},
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@ARTICLE{fs16,
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TITLE = {Graphematische Lesehilfen},
JOURNAL = {Mitteilungen des Deutschen Germanistenverbandes},
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VOLUME = {63},
NUMBER = {2},
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@ARTICLE{fcdr16,
AUTHOR = {Fuhrhop, Nanna and Rebecca Carroll and Catharina Drews and Esther Ruigendijk},
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YEAR = {2016},
VOLUME = {63},
NUMBER = {2},
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DOI = {10.14220/mdge.2016.63.2.119},
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@PHDTHESIS{g83,
AUTHOR = {Gabler, Birgit},
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YEAR = {1983},
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AUTHOR = {Gaeta, Livio},
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VOLUME = {40},
NUMBER = {1-2},
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AUTHOR = {Galambos, Imre},
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PUBLISHER = {Brill},
ADDRESS = {Leiden},
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YEAR = {1985},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
DOI = {10.1515/9783111630380},
SERIES = {Reihe Germanistische Linguistik},
VOLUME = {60},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g86,
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
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@INCOLLECTION{gs97,
AUTHOR = {Gallmann, Peter and Horst Sitta},
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EDITOR = {Gerhard Augst and Karl Blüml and Dieter Nerius and Host Sitta},
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DOI = {10.1515/9783110927993.93},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Werner Besch and Anne Betten and Oskar Reichmann and Stefan Sonderegger},
PAGES = {1765-1782},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110158823.2.13.1765},
SERIES = {Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science},
VOLUME = {2.1},
}

@ARTICLE{gflom07,
AUTHOR = {Garrod, Simon and Nicholas Fay and John Lee and Jon Oberlander and Tracy McLeod},
TITLE = {Foundations of representation: where might graphical symbol systems come from?},
JOURNAL = {Cognitive Science},
YEAR = {2007},
VOLUME = {31},
NUMBER = {6},
PAGES = {961-987},
DOI = {10.1080/03640210701703659},
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@ARTICLE{gl17,
AUTHOR = {Gartus, Andreas and Helmut Leder},
TITLE = {Predicting perceived visual complexity of abstract patterns using computational measures: the
influence of mirror symmetry on complexity perception},
JOURNAL = {PLoS One},
YEAR = {2017},
VOLUME = {12},
NUMBER = {11},
PAGES = {e0185276},
DOI = {10.1371/journal.pone.0185276},
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@ARTICLE{gwhc06,
AUTHOR = {Gauthier, Isabel and Alan C.-N. Wong and William G. Hayward and Olivia S. Cheung},
TITLE = {Font tuning associated with expertise in letter perception},
JOURNAL = {Perception},
YEAR = {2006},
VOLUME = {35},
NUMBER = {4},
PAGES = {541-559},
DOI = {10.1068/p5313},
}

@BOOK{g08,
AUTHOR = {Gee, James P.},
TITLE = {Social linguistics and literacies: ideology in discourses},
YEAR = {2008},
ADDRESS = {London},
PUBLISHER = {Routledge},
EDITION = {3},
}

@BOOK{g52,
AUTHOR = {Gelb, Ignace J.},
TITLE = {A Study of Writing, 2nd edition (3rd impression)},
YEAR = {1952--1969},
ADDRESS = {Chicago},
PUBLISHER = {University of Chicago Press},
}

@INCOLLECTION{ggdk06,
AUTHOR = {Genesee, Fred and Esther Geva and Cheryl Dressler and Michael L. Kamil},
TITLE = {Synthesis: cross-linguistic relationships},
BOOKTITLE = {Developing literacy in second-language learners: report of the National Literacy Panel on
language-minority children and youth},
YEAR = {2006},
PUBLISHER = {Lawrence Erlbaum Associates},
ADDRESS = {Mahwah, NJ},
EDITOR = {Diane August and Timothy Shanahan},
PAGES = {153-174},
}

@ARTICLE{g83a,
AUTHOR = {Gentner, Donald R.},
TITLE = {The acquisition of typewriting skill},
JOURNAL = {Acta Psychologica},
YEAR = {1983},
VOLUME = {54},
NUMBER = {1-3},
PAGES = {233-248},
DOI = {10.1016/0001-6918(83)90037-9},
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@ARTICLE{gdkffnf16,
AUTHOR = {Gerth, Sabrina and Thomas Dolk and Annegret Klassert and Michael Fliesser and Martin H. Fischer
and Guido Nottbusch and Julia Festman},
TITLE = {Adapting to the surface: a comparison of handwriting measures when writing on a tablet computer
and on paper},
JOURNAL = {Human Movement Science},
YEAR = {2016},
VOLUME = {48},
PAGES = {62-73},
DOI = {10.1016/j.humov.2016.04.006},
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@ARTICLE{gkdffnf16,
AUTHOR = {Gerth, Sabrina and Annegret Klassert and Thomas Dolk and Michael Fliesser and Martin H. Fischer
and Guido Nottbusch and Julia Festman},
TITLE = {Is handwriting performance affected by the writing surface? Comparing preschoolers', second
graders', and adults' writing performance on a tablet vs. paper},
JOURNAL = {Frontiers in Psychology},
YEAR = {2016},
VOLUME = {7},
NUMBER = {},
PAGES = {1308},
DOI = {10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01308},
}

@ARTICLE{gws93,
AUTHOR = {Geva, Esther and Lesly Wade-Woolley and Michal Shany},
TITLE = {The concurrent development of spelling and decoding in two different orthographies},
JOURNAL = {Journal of Reading Behavior},
YEAR = {1993},
VOLUME = {25},
NUMBER = {4},
PAGES = {383-406},
DOI = {10.1080/10862969309547827},
}

@ARTICLE{g13,
AUTHOR = {Giannouli, Vaitsa},
TITLE = {Visual symmetry perception},
JOURNAL = {Encephalos},
YEAR = {2013},
VOLUME = {50},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {31-42},
}

@BOOK{gl80,
AUTHOR = {Gibson, Eleanor J. and Harry Levin},
TITLE = {Die Psychologie des Lesens},
YEAR = {1980},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
PUBLISHER = {Klett-Cotta},
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@INCOLLECTION{goss63,
AUTHOR = {Gibson, Eleanor J. and Harry Osser and William Schiff and Jesse Smith},
TITLE = {An analysis of critical features of letters, tested by a confusion matrix},
YEAR = {1963},
ADDRESS = {Washington},
BOOKTITLE = {Cooperative Research Project No. 639: a basic research program on reading},
PUBLISHER = {U.S. Office of Education},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g93,
AUTHOR = {Giese, Heinz W.},
TITLE = {'Geschriebene Sprache' 1981-1991. Eine Zusammenstellung von Arbeiten der Studiengruppe ‚Geschriebene
Sprache` bei der Werner Reimers Stiftung and Bad Homburg},
BOOKTITLE = {homo scribens. Perspektiven der Schriftlichkeitsforschung},
YEAR = {1993},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Jürgen Baurmann and Hartmut Günther and Ulrich Knoop},
SERIES = {Reihe Germanistische Linguistik},
VOLUME = {134},
PAGES = {379-396},
DOI = {10.1515/9783111377087.379},
}

@ARTICLE{gs19,
AUTHOR = {Gingras, Maxime and Monique S{\'e}n{\'e}chal},
TITLE = {Evidence of statistical learning of orthographic representations in grades 1-5: the case of
silent letters and double consonants in French},
JOURNAL = {Scientific Studies in Reading},
YEAR = {2019},
VOLUME = {23},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {37-48},
DOI = {10.1080/10888438.2018.1482303},
}

@BOOK{g87a,
AUTHOR = {Glück, Helmut},
TITLE = {Schrift und Schriftlichkeit. Eine sprach- und kulturwissenschaftliche Studie},
YEAR = {1987},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
PUBLISHER = {Metzler},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g11,
AUTHOR = {Glück, Helmut},
TITLE = {Ikonizität der Schrift?},
BOOKTITLE = {Bild, Macht, Schrift: Schriftkulturen in bildkritischer Perspektive},
YEAR = {2011},
PUBLISHER = {Velbrück Wissenschaft},
ADDRESS = {Weilerswist},
EDITOR = {Antonio Loprieno and Carsten K. Salis and Birgit Mersmann},
PAGES = {67-79},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g16,
AUTHOR = {Glück, Helmut},
TITLE = {Interdependenzhypothese},
BOOKTITLE = {Metzler Lexikon Sprache},
YEAR = {2016},
PUBLISHER = {Metzler},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
EDITION = {5},
EDITOR = {Helmut Glück and Michael Rödel},
PAGES = {301-302},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g16a,
AUTHOR = {Glück, Helmut},
TITLE = {Graphem},
BOOKTITLE = {Metzler Lexikon Sprache},
YEAR = {2016},
PUBLISHER = {Metzler},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
EDITION = {5},
EDITOR = {Helmut Glück and Michael Rödel},
PAGES = {252-253},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g16b,
AUTHOR = {Glück, Helmut},
TITLE = {Schrift},
BOOKTITLE = {Metzler Lexikon Sprache},
YEAR = {2016},
PUBLISHER = {Metzler},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
EDITION = {5},
EDITOR = {Helmut Glück and Michael Rödel},
PAGES = {593-594},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g16c,
AUTHOR = {Glück, Helmut},
TITLE = {Schriftlinguistik},
BOOKTITLE = {Metzler Lexikon Sprache},
YEAR = {2016},
PUBLISHER = {Metzler},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
EDITION = {5},
EDITOR = {Helmut Glück and Michael Rödel},
PAGES = {596},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g16d,
AUTHOR = {Glück, Helmut},
TITLE = {Graphematik},
BOOKTITLE = {Metzler Lexikon Sprache},
YEAR = {2016},
PUBLISHER = {Metzler},
ADDRESS = {Stuttgart},
EDITION = {5},
EDITOR = {Helmut Glück and Michael Rödel},
PAGES = {253},
}

@ARTICLE{g17,
AUTHOR = {Gnanadesikan, Amalia E.},
TITLE = {Towards a typology of phonemic scripts},
JOURNAL = {Writing Systems Research},
YEAR = {2017},
VOLUME = {9},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {14-35},
DOI = {10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239},
}

@ARTICLE{gm01,
AUTHOR = {Goldin-Meadow, Susan and Rachel I. Mayberry},
TITLE = {How do profoundly deaf children learn to read?},
JOURNAL = {Learning Disabilities Research \& Practice},
YEAR = {2001},
VOLUME = {16},
NUMBER = {4},
PAGES = {222-229},
DOI = {10.1111/0938-8982.00022},
}

@ARTICLE{gf92,
AUTHOR = {Gombert, Jean E. and Michel Fayol},
TITLE = {Writing in preliterate children},
JOURNAL = {Learning and Instruction},
YEAR = {1992},
VOLUME = {2},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {23-41},
DOI = {10.1016/0959-4752(92)90003-5},
}

@ARTICLE{grp08,
AUTHOR = {Gomez, Pablo and Roger Ratcliff and Manuel Perea},
TITLE = {The overlap model: a model of letter position coding},
JOURNAL = {Psychological Review},
YEAR = {2008},
VOLUME = {115},
NUMBER = {3},
PAGES = {577-600},
DOI = {10.1037/a0012667},
}

@ARTICLE{g06a,
AUTHOR = {Gong, Yushu},
TITLE = {Graph typology of ancient Chinese and Sumerian writing systems - a comparative perspective},
JOURNAL = {Oriental Studies, Special Issue},
YEAR = {2006},
VOLUME = {6},
PAGES = {39-108},
}

@ARTICLE{gl73,
AUTHOR = {Goodnow, Jacqueline J. and Rochelle A. Levine},
TITLE = {The grammar of action: sequence and syntax in children's copying},
JOURNAL = {Cognitive Psychology},
YEAR = {1973},
VOLUME = {4},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {82-98},
DOI = {10.1016/0010-0285(73)90005-4},
}

@ARTICLE{gw63,
AUTHOR = {Goody, Jack and Ian P. Watt},
TITLE = {The consequences of literacy},
JOURNAL = {Comparative Studies in History and Society},
YEAR = {1963},
VOLUME = {5},
NUMBER = {3},
PAGES = {304-345},
DOI = {10.1017/S0010417500001730},
}

@BOOK{g06b,
AUTHOR = {Gordon, Jurij},
TITLE = {Kniga pro bukvy ot Aa do Jaja},
YEAR = {2006},
ADDRESS = {Moscow},
PUBLISHER = {Izdatel'stvo Studii Artemija Lebedeva},
}

@ARTICLE{gc,
AUTHOR = {Gosse, Claire and Simon Carbonnelle and Christophe de Vleeschouwer and Marie Van Reybroeck},
TITLE = {Specifying the graphic characteristics of words that influence children's handwriting},
JOURNAL = {Reading and Writing},
YEAR = {2018},
VOLUME = {31},
NUMBER = {5},
PAGES = {1181-1207},
DOI = {10.1007/s11145-018-9834-9},
}

@INCOLLECTION{gh04,
AUTHOR = {Grainger, Jonathan and Walter J.~B. Van Heuven},
TITLE = {Modeling letter position coding in printed word perception},
BOOKTITLE = {Mental lexicon: ``some words to talk about words''},
YEAR = {2004},
PUBLISHER = {Nova Science},
ADDRESS = {New York},
EDITOR = {Patrick Bonin},
PAGES = {1-24},
}

@PHDTHESIS{g20,
AUTHOR = {Gredig, Andi},
TITLE = {Schreiben mit der Hand},
SCHOOL = {Begriffe -- Diskurs -- Praktiken. , Universität Zürich},
YEAR = {2020},
}

@BOOK{g95,
AUTHOR = {Gregg, No{\"e}l},
TITLE = {Written expression disorders},
YEAR = {1995},
ADDRESS = {Dordrecht},
PUBLISHER = {Springer},
DOI = {10.1007/978-94-011-0297-1},
SERIES = {Neuropsychology and Cognition},
VOLUME = {10},
}

@BOOK{gw06,
AUTHOR = {Grenoble, Lenore A. and Lindsay J. Whaley},
TITLE = {Saving languages: an introduction to language revitalization},
YEAR = {2006},
ADDRESS = {Cambridge},
PUBLISHER = {CUP},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g15a,
AUTHOR = {Gronemeyer, Sven},
TITLE = {Class struggle: Towards a better understanding of Maya writing using comparative graphematics},
BOOKTITLE = {On methods: How we know what we think we know about the Maya. Proceedings of the 17th European
Maya Conference, Helsinki December 9-15, 2012},
YEAR = {2015},
PUBLISHER = {Anton Saurwein},
ADDRESS = {München},
EDITOR = {Harri Kettunen and Christophe Helmke},
PAGES = {101-117},
SERIES = {Acta Mesoamericana},
VOLUME = {28},
}

@ARTICLE{g04,
AUTHOR = {Grosswiler, Paul},
TITLE = {Dispelling the Alphabet Effect},
JOURNAL = {Canadian Journal of Communication},
YEAR = {2004},
VOLUME = {29},
NUMBER = {2},
PAGES = {145-158},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g12,
AUTHOR = {Gruendler, Beatrice},
TITLE = {Stability and change in Arabic script},
BOOKTITLE = {The shape of script: how and why writing systems change},
YEAR = {2012},
PUBLISHER = {School for Advanced Research Press},
ADDRESS = {Santa Fe},
EDITOR = {Stephen D. Houston},
PAGES = {93-118},
}

@BOOK{g88,
AUTHOR = {Günther, Hartmut},
TITLE = {Schriftliche Sprache: Strukturen geschriebener Wörter und ihre Verarbeitung beim Lesen},
YEAR = {1988},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110935851},
SERIES = {Konzepte der Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaft},
VOLUME = {40},
}

@ARTICLE{g90,
AUTHOR = {Günther, Hartmut},
TITLE = {Zur neueren Schriftlichkeitsforschung},
JOURNAL = {Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache},
YEAR = {1990},
VOLUME = {112},
PAGES = {349-370},
DOI = {10.1515/bgsl.1990.1990.112.349},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g90a,
AUTHOR = {Günther, Hartmut},
TITLE = {Typographie, Orthographie, Graphetik. Überlegungen zu einem Buch von Otl Aicher},
BOOKTITLE = {Zu einer Theorie der Orthographie: interdisziplinäre Aspekte gegenwärtiger Schrift- und
Orthographieforschung},
YEAR = {1990},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
SERIES = {Reihe Germanistische Linguistik},
VOLUME = {99},
EDITOR = {Christian Stetter},
PAGES = {90-103},
DOI = {10.1515/9783111372280.90},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g93a,
AUTHOR = {Günther, Hartmut},
TITLE = {Die Studiengruppe 'Geschriebene Sprache' bei der Werner Reimers Stiftung, Bad Homburg},
BOOKTITLE = {homo scribens. Perspektiven der Schriftlichkeitsforschung},
YEAR = {1993},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Jürgen Baurmann and Hartmut Günther and Ulrich Knoop},
SERIES = {Reihe Germanistische Linguistik},
VOLUME = {134},
PAGES = {371-378},
DOI = {10.1515/9783111377087.371},
}

@INCOLLECTION{g93b,
AUTHOR = {Günther, Hartmut},
TITLE = {Graphetik - Ein Entwurf},
BOOKTITLE = {homo scribens. Perspektiven der Schriftlichkeitsforschung},
YEAR = {1993},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Jürgen Baurmann and Hartmut Günther and Ulrich Knoop},
SERIES = {Reihe Germanistische Linguistik},
VOLUME = {134},
PAGES = {29-42},
DOI = {10.1515/9783111377087.29},
}

@BOOK{gl,
EDITOR = {Günther, Hartmut and Otto Ludwig},
TITLE = {Schrift und Schriftlichkeit/Writing and its use},
YEAR = {1994--1996},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
SERIES = {Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science},
VOLUME = {10.1 and 10.2},
}

@BOOK{g16e,
AUTHOR = {Güthert, Kerstin},
TITLE = {Bericht des Rats für deutsche Rechtschreibung über die Wahrnehmung seiner Aufgaben in der Periode
2011 bis 2016},
ADDRESS = {Mannheim},
PUBLISHER = {Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung},
YEAR = {2016},
URL = {http://www.rechtschreibrat.com/DOX/rfdr_Bericht_2011-2016.pdf},
URLDATE = {2019-01-19},
}

@BOOK{h56,
AUTHOR = {Haas, Mary R.},
TITLE = {The Thai system of writing},
YEAR = {1956},
ADDRESS = {Washington},
PUBLISHER = {American Council of Learned Societies},
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@BOOK{h09,
AUTHOR = {Häffner, Sonja},
TITLE = {Universalien der Schrift und Schriftverarbeitung: zu den schrifttheoretischen Prämissen psychologischer
Lesemodelle},
YEAR = {2009},
ADDRESS = {Frankfurt a.M.},
PUBLISHER = {Peter Lang},
SERIES = {Europäische Hochschulschriften 21, Linguistik},
VOLUME = {349},
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@INCOLLECTION{h13,
AUTHOR = {Häffner, Sonja},
TITLE = {Eszett},
BOOKTITLE = {Schriftlinguistik/Grapholinguistics},
YEAR = {2013},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin, Boston},
EDITOR = {Martin Neef and Said Sahel and Rüdiger Weingarten},
SERIES = {Dictionaries of Linguistics and Communication Science},
VOLUME = {5},
DOI = {10.1515/wsk.5.0.eszett},
}

@BOOK{h59,
AUTHOR = {Halle, Morris},
TITLE = {The sound pattern of Russian: a linguistic an acoustical investigation},
YEAR = {1959},
ADDRESS = {Berlin, Boston},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110869453},
SERIES = {Description and Analysis of Contemporary Standard Russian},
VOLUME = {1},
}

@INCOLLECTION{h77,
AUTHOR = {Halliday, Michael A. K.},
TITLE = {Ideas about language},
BOOKTITLE = {On language and linguistics},
YEAR = {1977--2010},
PUBLISHER = {Continuum},
ADDRESS = {London and New York},
EDITOR = {Jonathan J. Webster and M. A. K. Halliday},
PAGES = {92-112},
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@ARTICLE{h59a,
AUTHOR = {Hamp, Eric P.},
TITLE = {Graphemics and paragraphemics},
JOURNAL = {Studies in Linguistics},
YEAR = {1959},
VOLUME = {14},
NUMBER = {1-2},
PAGES = {1-5},
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@ARTICLE{h13a,
AUTHOR = {Handel, Zev},
TITLE = {Can a logographic script be simplified? Lessons from the 20th century Chinese writing reform
informed by recent psycholinguistic research},
JOURNAL = {Scripta},
YEAR = {2013},
VOLUME = {5},
NUMBER = {},
PAGES = {21-66},
}

@BOOK{h97,
AUTHOR = {Hannas, William C.},
TITLE = {Asia's orthographic dilemma},
YEAR = {1997},
ADDRESS = {Honolulu},
PUBLISHER = {University of Hawai'i Press},
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@BOOK{h07,
AUTHOR = {Haralambous, Yannis},
TITLE = {Fonts \& Encodings},
YEAR = {2007},
ADDRESS = {Sebastopol, CA},
PUBLISHER = {O'Reilly},
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@ARTICLE{h20,
AUTHOR = {Haralambous, Yannis},
TITLE = {Grapholinguistics, TEX, and a June 2020 conference in Paris},
JOURNAL = {TUGboat},
YEAR = {2020},
VOLUME = {41},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {12-19},
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@INCOLLECTION{hd19,
AUTHOR = {Haralambous, Yannis and Joseph Dichy},
TITLE = {Graphemic methods for gender-neutral writing},
BOOKTITLE = {Graphemics in the 21st century. Brest, June 13-15, 2018. Procedings},
YEAR = {2019},
PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
ADDRESS = {Brest},
EDITOR = {Yannis Haralambous},
PAGES = {41-89},
DOI = {10.36824/2018-graf-hara2},
SERIES = {Grapholinguistics and Its Applications},
VOLUME = {1},
}

@BOOK{h13b,
AUTHOR = {Harralson, Heidi H.},
TITLE = {Developments in handwriting and signature identification in the digital age},
YEAR = {2013},
ADDRESS = {Oxford, Waltham},
PUBLISHER = {Anderson Publishing},
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@BOOK{h80,
AUTHOR = {Harris, Roy},
TITLE = {The language-makers},
YEAR = {1980},
ADDRESS = {London},
PUBLISHER = {Duckworth},
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@INCOLLECTION{h94,
AUTHOR = {Harris, Roy},
TITLE = {Semiotic aspects of writing},
BOOKTITLE = {Schrift und Schriftlichkeit/Writing and its use},
YEAR = {1994},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
SERIES = {Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science},
VOLUME = {10.1},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Hartmut Günther and Otto Ludwig},
PAGES = {41-48},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110111293.1.1.41},
}

@INCOLLECTION{h05,
AUTHOR = {Harris, Roy},
TITLE = {Schrift und linguistische Theorie},
BOOKTITLE = {Schrift: Kulturtechnik zwischen Auge, Hand und Maschine},
YEAR = {2005},
PUBLISHER = {Wilhelm Fink},
ADDRESS = {München},
EDITOR = {Gernot Grube and Werner Kogge and Sybille Krämer},
PAGES = {61-80},
SERIES = {Kulturtechnik}
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@ARTICLE{h10,
AUTHOR = {Haspelmath, Martin},
TITLE = {Comparative concepts and descriptive categories in crosslinguistic studies},
JOURNAL = {Language},
YEAR = {2010},
VOLUME = {86},
NUMBER = {3},
PAGES = {663-687},
DOI = {10.1353/lan.2010.0021},
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@ARTICLE{h08,
AUTHOR = {Hatcher, Lynley},
TITLE = {Script change in Azerbaijan: acts of identity},
JOURNAL = {International Journal of the Sociology of Language},
YEAR = {2008},
VOLUME = {192},
PAGES = {105-116},
DOI = {10.1515/IJSL.2008.038},
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@INCOLLECTION{h80a,
AUTHOR = {Heller, Klaus},
TITLE = {Zum Graphembegriff},
BOOKTITLE = {Theoretische Probleme der deutschen Orthographie},
YEAR = {1980},
PUBLISHER = {Akademie-Verlag},
ADDRESS = {Berlin},
EDITOR = {Dieter Nerius and Jürgen Scharnhorst},
PAGES = {74-108},
SERIES = {Sprache und Gesellschaft},
VOLUME = {16},
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@BOOK{h06,
AUTHOR = {Hennig, Mathilde},
TITLE = {Grammatik der gesprochenen Sprache in Theorie und Praxis},
YEAR = {2006},
ADDRESS = {Kassel},
PUBLISHER = {kassel university press},
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@ARTICLE{hsjf17,
AUTHOR = {Hermena, Ehab W. and Mercedes Sheen and Maryam Al Jassmi and Khulood Al Falasi and Maha Al
Matroushi and Timothy R. Jordan},
TITLE = {Reading rate and comprehension for text presented on tablet and paper: evidence from Arabic},
JOURNAL = {Frontiers in Psychology},
YEAR = {2017},
VOLUME = {8},
NUMBER = {},
PAGES = {257},
DOI = {10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00257},
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@BOOK{h66,
AUTHOR = {Herrick, Earl M.},
TITLE = {A linguistic description of Roman alphabets},
YEAR = {1966},
ADDRESS = {Hartford},
PUBLISHER = {Hartford Seminary Foundation},
SERIES = {Hartford Studies in Linguistics},
VOLUME = {19},
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@ARTICLE{h74,
AUTHOR = {Herrick, Earl M.},
TITLE = {A taxonomy of alphabets and scripts},
JOURNAL = {Visible Language},
YEAR = {1974},
VOLUME = {8},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {5-32},
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@ARTICLE{h75,
AUTHOR = {Herrick, Earl M.},
TITLE = {Orthographies and scripts: a necessary distinction},
JOURNAL = {LACUS Forum},
YEAR = {1975},
VOLUME = {1},
PAGES = {533-539},
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@ARTICLE{h75a,
AUTHOR = {Herrick, Earl M.},
TITLE = {Letters with alternative basic shapes},
JOURNAL = {Visible Language},
YEAR = {1975},
VOLUME = {9},
NUMBER = {2},
PAGES = {133-144},
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@ARTICLE{h94a,
AUTHOR = {Herrick, Earl M.},
TITLE = {Of course a structural graphemics is possible!},
JOURNAL = {LACUS Forum},
YEAR = {1994},
VOLUME = {21},
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AUTHOR = {Lindqvist, Christer},
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@PHDTHESIS{l99,
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AUTHOR = {Maas, Utz},
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YEAR = {1992},
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@ARTICLE{m15,
AUTHOR = {Maas, Utz},
TITLE = {Vom Sinn der Rechtschreibung},
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@ARTICLE{m,
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@ARTICLE{ma,
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PAGES = {},
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PAGES = {1036-1048},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110147445.2.7.1036},
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PUBLISHER = {Springer},
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SERIES = {Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence},
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@INCOLLECTION{m90,
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SERIES = {Studies in the History of the Language Sciences},
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@BOOK{m17b,
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ADDRESS = {Cambridge},
PUBLISHER = {MIT Press},
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@INCOLLECTION{m94b,
AUTHOR = {Munske, Horst H.},
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@BOOK{m19a,
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@ARTICLE{nsqh14,
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YEAR = {1989},
VOLUME = {8},
PUBLISHER = {Peter Lang},
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}

@INCOLLECTION{n90,
AUTHOR = {Naumann, Carl L.},
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Orthographieforschung},
YEAR = {1990},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
SERIES = {Reihe Germanistische Linguistik},
VOLUME = {99},
EDITOR = {Christian Stetter},
PAGES = {145-162},
DOI = {10.1515/9783111372280.145},
}

@BOOK{n05,
AUTHOR = {Neef, Martin},
TITLE = {Die Graphematik des Deutschen},
YEAR = {2005},
ADDRESS = {Berlin, Boston},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110914856},
SERIES = {Linguistische Arbeiten},
VOLUME = {500},
}

@ARTICLE{n12,
AUTHOR = {Neef, Martin},
TITLE = {Graphematics as part of a modular theory of phonographic writing systems},
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YEAR = {2012},
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NUMBER = {2},
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@ARTICLE{n15,
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TITLE = {Writing systems as modular objects: proposals for theory design in grapholinguistics},
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PAGES = {708-721},
DOI = {10.1515/opli-2015-0026},
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@ARTICLE{n19,
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VOLUME = {14},
NUMBER = {1},
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DOI = {10.1075/wll.14.1.06nee},
}

@BOOK{nsw,
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YEAR = {2012--},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
SERIES = {Dictionaries of Linguistics and Communication Science},
VOLUME = {5},
}

@INCOLLECTION{n07a,
AUTHOR = {Nerius, Dieter},
TITLE = {Merkmale der Orthographie},
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YEAR = {2007},
PUBLISHER = {Olms},
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EDITION = {4},
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AUTHOR = {Nerius, Dieter},
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YEAR = {2012},
PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
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VOLUME = {173},
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@BOOK{o12a,
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PAGES = {1049-1056},
DOI = {10.1515/9783110147445.2.7.10},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
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EDITOR = {Ursula Bredel and Hartmut Günther},
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DOI = {10.1515/9783110921199.5},
SERIES = {Linguistische Arbeiten},
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@INCOLLECTION{p10a,
AUTHOR = {Primus, Beatrice},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
ADDRESS = {Berlin and Boston},
EDITOR = {Ursula Bredel and Astrid Müller and Gabriele Hinney},
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DOI = {10.1515/9783110232257.9},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
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PUBLISHER = {Switzerland},
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EDITOR = {},
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AUTHOR = {Reiner, Erica},
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PUBLISHER = {De Gruyter},
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DOI = {10.1515/9783110111033.1.1.1},
SERIES = {Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science},
VOLUME = {18.1},
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@BOOK{r15,
AUTHOR = {Rei{\ss}ig, Tilo},
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ADDRESS = {Tübingen},
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AUTHOR = {Rei{\ss}ig, Tilo and Tobias Bernasconi},
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YEAR = {2015},
PUBLISHER = {Peter Lang},
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EDITOR = {Iris Rautenberg and Tilo Rei{\ss}ig},
PAGES = {217-241},
SERIES = {Forum Angewandte Linguistik},
VOLUME = {53},
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}