ISSN: 2534-5192 (electronic) – 2681-8566 (print)
ISSN: 2534-5192 (electronic) – 2681-8566 (print)| ◀ Antonio Perri | ▲ Proceedings | Michael Filhol ▶ |
 ISBN: 978-2-487055-12-4 e-ISBN: 978-2-487055-13-1  Download (122.87 MB) | Braille as writing: Evidence and lessons for grapholinguistic theory Arvind Iyengar  Download (1.97 MB)Abstract. The inventory of embossed symbols known as Braille is widely used by Blind and Visually Impaired (BVI) users for touch-reading and information exchange. In permitting communication through the tactile-graphical mode, Braille acts as an alternative to the visual-graphical mode employed by sighted persons for the same purpose. Since its creation two centuries ago, this tactile symbol inventory has enabled BVI users around the world to access information that might otherwise have been inaccessible or unavailable to them. Braille has been widely admired for its simplicity and emancipatory potential. Yet, most sighted users know little about the symbol inventory or its underlying workings as a graphical form of spoken language. The lack of awareness extends to scholarly circles, with Braille remaining an outlier in grapholinguistic and related research endeavors. Consequently, the insights that Braille potentially offers for refining our understanding of writing remain largely unknown. Of late, Blind and sighted advocates have been calling for greater attention to be given to Braille in grapholinguistic contexts, and for it to be considered a valid form of writing. This article addresses the fundamental question of whether Braille text can be considered ‘writing’ that is analogous and equivalent to print text. To this end, the article investigates whether linguistic content in Braille meets the definitions of key grapholinguistic concepts, and identifies outliers and edge cases. The article concludes that Braille text not only fulfils the definition of ‘writing’ under contemporary grapholinguistic theory, it also helps clarify hitherto ambiguous or debated concepts. DOI: https://doi.org/10.36824/2024-graf-iyen
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AUTHOR = {Barbier, Charles},
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EDITION = {2},
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}
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}
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AUTHOR = {Bauer, Thomas},
TITLE = {Arabic writing},
BOOKTITLE = {The {World}'s {Writing} {Systems}},
PUBLISHER = {Oxford University Press},
ADDRESS = {New York},
YEAR = {1996},
PAGES = {559--564},
}
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PAGES = {45--55},
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BOOKTITLE = {Biscriptality: {A} sociolinguistic typology},
PUBLISHER = {Universitätsverlag Winter},
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PAGES = {51--72},
}
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AUTHOR = {Bunčić, Daniel},
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BOOKTITLE = {Biscriptality: {A} sociolinguistic typology},
PUBLISHER = {Universitätsverlag Winter},
ADDRESS = {Heidelberg},
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PAGES = {96--101},
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@MISC{dixon_eight-dot_2007,
AUTHOR = {Dixon, Judy},
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AUTHOR = {{eBraille Working Group}},
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}
@MISC{englebretson_ipa_2008,
EDITOR = {Englebretson, Robert},
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PUBLISHER = {International Council on English Braille},
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}
@ARTICLE{englebretson_overview_2009,
AUTHOR = {Englebretson, Robert},
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AUTHOR = {Englebretson, Robert and Holbrook, M. Cay and Fischer-Baum, Simon},
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JOURNAL = {Applied Psycholinguistics},
YEAR = {2023},
VOLUME = {44},
PAGES = {400--415},
}
@MISC{european_central_bank_current_2025,
AUTHOR = {{European Central Bank}},
TITLE = {Current banknotes › {Denominations}},
YEAR = {2025},
URL = {https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/banknotes/current/denominations/html/index.en.html#es2-100},
}
@MISC{european_central_bank_euro_2025,
AUTHOR = {{European Central Bank}},
TITLE = {The euro › {Visually} impaired people},
YEAR = {2025},
URL = {https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/visually/html/index.en.html},
}
@MISC{fetnaci_arabic_2022,
AUTHOR = {Fetnaci, Naval and Haralambous, Yannis and Varin, Marie},
TITLE = {On {Arabic} braille},
TYPE = {Conference poster},
ADDRESS = {Paris},
YEAR = {2022},
URL = {http://www.fluxus-editions.fr/grafematik2022-files/FETNACI-poster.pdf},
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@ARTICLE{fischer-baum_orthographic_2016,
AUTHOR = {Fischer-Baum, Simon and Englebretson, Robert},
TITLE = {Orthographic units in the absence of visual processing: {Evidence} from sublexical structure in braille},
JOURNAL = {Cognition},
YEAR = {2016},
VOLUME = {153},
PAGES = {161--174},
}
@ARTICLE{franklin_mapping_2011,
AUTHOR = {Franklin, Simon},
TITLE = {Mapping the graphosphere: {Cultures} of writing in early 19th-century {Russia} (and before)},
JOURNAL = {Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History},
YEAR = {2011},
VOLUME = {12},
PAGES = {531--560},
}
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AUTHOR = {Gelb, Ignace J.},
TITLE = {A study of writing},
EDITION = {2},
PUBLISHER = {University of Chicago Press},
ADDRESS = {Chicago},
YEAR = {1963},
}
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PUBLISHER = {Wiley-Blackwell},
ADDRESS = {Malden, MA},
YEAR = {2009},
}
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AUTHOR = {Gnanadesikan, Amalia E.},
TITLE = {Towards a typology of phonemic scripts},
JOURNAL = {Writing Systems Research},
YEAR = {2017},
VOLUME = {9},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {14--35},
URL = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17586801.2017.1308239},
}
@ARTICLE{hodge_deaf_2023,
AUTHOR = {Hodge, Gabrielle and Goswell, Della},
TITLE = {Deaf signing diversity and signed language translations},
JOURNAL = {Applied Linguistics Review},
YEAR = {2023},
VOLUME = {14},
NUMBER = {5},
PAGES = {1045--1083},
}
@INPROCEEDINGS{honda_modular_2021,
AUTHOR = {Honda, Keisuke},
EDITOR = {Haralambous, Yannis},
TITLE = {A modular theoretic approach to the {Japanese} writing system: {Possibilities} and challenges},
BOOKTITLE = {Grapholinguistics in the 21st {Century} 2020. {Proceedings}},
SERIES = {Grapholinguistics and {Its} {Applications}, {Vol}. 5},
PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
ADDRESS = {Brest},
YEAR = {2021},
PAGES = {621--643},
}
@ARTICLE{hoskin_effectiveness_2024,
AUTHOR = {Hoskin, Elizabeth R. and Coyne, Morag K. and White, Michael J. and Dobri, Stephan C. D. and Davies, T. Claire and Pinder, Shane D.},
TITLE = {Effectiveness of technology for braille literacy education for children: a systematic review},
JOURNAL = {Disability and rehabilitation: Assistive technology},
YEAR = {2024},
VOLUME = {19},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {120--130},
}
@MISC{iit_madras_introduction_2020,
AUTHOR = {{IIT Madras}},
TITLE = {Introduction to {Bharati} {Braille}},
JOURNAL = {Acharya: Multilingual computing for literacy and education},
YEAR = {2020},
URL = {https://web.archive.org/web/20200727032543/http://www.acharya.gen.in:8080/disabilities/bh_brl.php},
}
@MISC{international_council_on_english_braille_unified_2012,
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YEAR = {2012},
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AUTHOR = {{Internet Assigned Numbers Authority}},
TITLE = {Language {Subtag} {Registry}},
YEAR = {2025},
URL = {https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry},
}
@ARTICLE{iyengar_more_2023,
AUTHOR = {Iyengar, Arvind V.},
TITLE = {More matters of typology: {Alphasyllabaries}, abugidas and related vowelled segmentaries},
JOURNAL = {Written Language \& Literacy},
YEAR = {2023},
VOLUME = {26},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {30--56},
}
@INPROCEEDINGS{iyengar_akshara_2024,
AUTHOR = {Iyengar, Arvind V.},
TITLE = {The akshara as a graphematic unit},
BOOKTITLE = {Grapholinguistics in the 21st {Century} 2022. {Proceedings}},
SERIES = {Grapholinguistics and {Its} {Applications}, {Vol}. 10},
PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
ADDRESS = {Brest},
YEAR = {2024},
PAGES = {419--436},
}
@BOOK{iyengar_writing_nodate,
AUTHOR = {Iyengar, Arvind V.},
EDITOR = {Haralambous, Yannis},
TITLE = {Writing systems of {Sindhi}: {Scripts}, orthographies, sociolinguistics},
SERIES = {Grapholinguistics and {Its} {Applications}},
PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
ADDRESS = {Brest},
}
@ARTICLE{joyce_notions_2019,
AUTHOR = {Joyce, Terry and Masuda, Hisashi},
TITLE = {On the notions of graphematic representation and orthography from the perspective of the {Japanese} writing system},
JOURNAL = {Written Language \& Literacy},
YEAR = {2019},
VOLUME = {22},
NUMBER = {2},
PAGES = {247--279},
}
@INCOLLECTION{kaye_adaptations_1996,
AUTHOR = {Kaye, Alan S.},
EDITOR = {Daniels, Peter T. and Bright, William},
TITLE = {Adaptations of {Arabic} script},
BOOKTITLE = {The world's writing systems},
PUBLISHER = {Oxford University Press},
ADDRESS = {New York},
YEAR = {1996},
PAGES = {743--762},
}
@MISC{kearney_inuktitut_2012,
AUTHOR = {Kearney, Tamara Johnson},
TITLE = {Inuktitut syllabary {Braille} code},
JOURNAL = {Commonwealth Braille and Talking Book Cooperative},
YEAR = {2012},
URL = {https://web.archive.org/http://cbtbc.org/braille/inuktitut/},
}
@MISC{kearney_cherokee_2014,
AUTHOR = {Kearney, Tamara Johnson},
TITLE = {Cherokee syllabary {Braille} code},
JOURNAL = {Commonwealth Braille and Talking Book Cooperative},
YEAR = {2014},
URL = {https://web.archive.org/http://cbtbc.org/braille/cherokee/},
}
@MISC{kearney_klingon_2019,
AUTHOR = {Kearney, Tamara Johnson},
TITLE = {Klingon {Braille} code},
JOURNAL = {Commonwealth Braille and Talking Book Cooperative},
YEAR = {2019},
URL = {https://web.archive.org/http://cbtbc.org/braille/klingon/},
}
@MISC{klein_blind_2022,
AUTHOR = {Klein, David and Spitzmüller, Jürgen},
TITLE = {Blind spots: {On} the discursive (in-)visibility of {Braille} as opposed to sign language},
TYPE = {Conference presentation},
ADDRESS = {Paris},
YEAR = {2022},
URL = {https://youtu.be/bd3aD2juNoQ},
}
@BOOK{mackenzie_world_1953,
AUTHOR = {Mackenzie, Clutha Nantes},
TITLE = {World {Braille} {Usage}: {A} survey of efforts towards uniformity of {Braille} notation},
EDITION = {1},
PUBLISHER = {UNESCO},
ADDRESS = {Paris},
YEAR = {1954},
}
@ARTICLE{martiniello_association_2022,
AUTHOR = {Martiniello, Natalina and Wittich, Walter},
TITLE = {The association between tactile, motor and cognitive capacities and braille reading performance: a scoping review of primary evidence to advance research on braille and aging},
JOURNAL = {Disability and rehabilitation},
YEAR = {2022},
VOLUME = {44},
NUMBER = {11},
PAGES = {2515--2536},
}
@BOOK{meletis_nature_2020,
AUTHOR = {Meletis, Dimitrios},
TITLE = {The nature of writing: {A} theory of grapholinguistics},
SERIES = {Grapholinguistics and {Its} {Applications}, {Vol}. 3},
PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
ADDRESS = {Brest},
YEAR = {2020},
URL = {http://www.fluxus-editions.fr/meletis-the-nature-of-writing-2020.pdf},
}
@BOOK{mellor_louis_2006,
AUTHOR = {Mellor, C. Michael},
TITLE = {Louis {Braille}: {A} touch of genius},
PUBLISHER = {National Braille Press},
ADDRESS = {Boston},
YEAR = {2006},
URL = {https://tinyurl.com/4aw69drr},
}
@MISC{nagoya_braille_network__2006,
AUTHOR = {{Nagoya Braille Network}},
TITLE = {{\japanese 漢点字入門} [{Introduction} to {Kantenji}]},
PUBLISHER = {n-braille.net},
YEAR = {2006},
URL = {https://tinyurl.com/4rcy336b},
}
@MISC{national_federation_of_the_blind_first_nodate,
AUTHOR = {{National Federation of the Blind}},
TITLE = {The first publication of the {Braille} code},
URL = {https://tinyurl.com/yut569ab},
}
@ARTICLE{neef_writing_2015,
AUTHOR = {Neef, Martin},
TITLE = {Writing systems as modular objects: {Proposals} for theory design in grapholinguistics},
JOURNAL = {Open Linguistics},
YEAR = {2015},
VOLUME = {1},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {708--721},
}
@TECHREPORT{nemeth_nemeth_1973,
AUTHOR = {Nemeth, Abraham},
TITLE = {The {Nemeth} {Braille} code for mathematics and science notation: 1972 revision},
ADDRESS = {Louisville, Kentucky},
YEAR = {1973},
URL = {https://archive.org/details/nemethbraillecod00comp/},
}
@MISC{noauthor_new_2006,
TITLE = {New {Zealand} {Sign} {Language} {Act}},
YEAR = {2006},
URL = {https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2006/0018/latest/versions.aspx},
}
@BOOK{perkins_world_2013,
AUTHOR = {{Perkins} and {International Council on English Braille} and {National Library Service}},
TITLE = {World {Braille} {Usage}},
EDITION = {3},
PUBLISHER = {UNESCO},
ADDRESS = {Washington, D.C.},
YEAR = {2013},
}
@MISC{phillips_tags_2009,
AUTHOR = {Phillips, Addison and Baker, Mark},
TITLE = {Tags for {Identifying} {Languages}},
PUBLISHER = {Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)},
TYPE = {{BCP} 47, {RFC} 5646},
YEAR = {2009},
}
@MISC{raymond_presenting_2020,
AUTHOR = {Raymond, Martin},
TITLE = {Presenting writing system information},
JOURNAL = {ScriptSource},
YEAR = {2020},
URL = {https://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=entry_detail&uid=r7jbnbjkfw},
}
@BOOK{sampson_writing_2015,
AUTHOR = {Sampson, Geoffrey},
TITLE = {Writing systems},
EDITION = {2},
PUBLISHER = {Equinox},
ADDRESS = {Sheffield},
YEAR = {2015},
}
@MISC{scriptsource_braille_2025,
AUTHOR = {{ScriptSource}},
TITLE = {Braille},
YEAR = {2025},
URL = {https://scriptsource.org/scr/Brai},
}
@ARTICLE{sheffield_how_2022,
AUTHOR = {Sheffield, Rebecca M. and D'Andrea, Frances M. and Morash, Valerie and Chatfield, Sarah},
TITLE = {How many braille readers? {Policy}, politics, and perception},
JOURNAL = {Journal of Visual Impairment \& Blindness},
YEAR = {2022},
VOLUME = {116},
NUMBER = {1},
PAGES = {14--25},
}
@BOOK{simpson_rules_2024,
EDITOR = {Simpson, Christine and Horspool, Matthew},
TITLE = {The rules of {Unified} {English} {Braille}},
EDITION = {3},
PUBLISHER = {International Council on English Braille},
YEAR = {2024},
URL = {https://iceb.org/Rules of Unified English Braille 2024.pdf},
}
@MISC{tomic_deux_2025,
AUTHOR = {Tomic, Nenad},
TITLE = {Deux siècles de braille, une écriture universelle en relief pour les non-voyants et malvoyants [{Two} centuries of {Braille}, a universal system of embossed writing for {BVI} people]},
JOURNAL = {Radio France Internationale},
YEAR = {2025},
URL = {https://www.rfi.fr/fr/connaissances/20250117-deux-si%C3%A8cles-de-braille-une-%C3%A9criture-universelle-en-relief-pour-les-non-voyants-et-malvoyants},
}
@INCOLLECTION{weingarten_comparative_2013,
AUTHOR = {Weingarten, Rüdiger},
EDITOR = {Borgwaldt, Susanne R. and Joyce, Terry},
TITLE = {Comparative graphematics},
BOOKTITLE = {Typology of writing systems},
PUBLISHER = {John Benjamins},
ADDRESS = {Amsterdam},
YEAR = {2013},
PAGES = {13--39},
}
Arvind Iyengar (2024), “Braille as writing: Evidence and lessons for grapholinguistic theory,” in Proceedings of Grapholinguistics in the 21st Century, 2024 (Yannis Haralambous, Ed.), Grapholinguistics and Its Applications, Vol. 12, Brest: Fluxus Editions, 661–688.
@INPROCEEDINGS{gla12-iyen,
AUTHOR = {Arvind Iyengar},
EDITOR = {Haralambous, Yannis},
TITLE = {{Braille as writing: Evidence and lessons for grapholinguistic theory}},
BOOKTITLE = {{Proceedings of Grapholinguistics in the 21st Century, 2024}},
SERIES = {{Grapholinguistics and Its Applications}},
VOLUME = {12},
PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
ADDRESS = {Brest},
YEAR = {2024},
PAGES = {661--688},
DOI = {https://doi.org/10.36824/2024-graf-iyen},
}
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