ISSN: 2534-5192 (electronic) – 2681-8566 (print)

◀ Dennis Reisloh; Tatjana Scheffler▲ ProceedingsJonas Romstadt ▶



ISBN: 978-2-487055-10-0
e-ISBN: 978-2-487055-11-7

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Linear Featurality in Roman Script African Orthographies
David A. Roberts
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Abstract. This paper uses the term “linear featurality” to describe the orthographic representation on the segmental (CV) tier of a unit lower on the phonological hierarchy than the phoneme. It is present, regularly or irregularly, in many of the world’s writing systems, and the Roman script orthographies of Africa are no exception. The paper surveys linear featurality in 180 languages from 30 countries, with language data extracted from published and unpublished literature, responses to an online forum, and a perusal of Omniglot, the online database of writing systems and languages. Cases identified include nasal vowels, prenasalization, labialization, palatalization, glottalized sounds, laterals, dentals, retroflexes, aspiration, rhoticization, fricativization, velarization, ATR, pharyngealization, back unroundedness, and clicks. The survey also illustrates some cases of simultaneous and irregular linear featurality, before a discussion comparing and contrasting linear and multilinear featurality in Africa.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36824/2024-graf-robe


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   AUTHOR = {{ACATBA}},
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   PUBLISHER = {ACATBA},
   ADDRESS = {Bangui},
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   BOOKTITLE = {Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages},
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}

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   YEAR = {2016},
}

@BOOK{Hartell1993,
   AUTHOR = {Hartell, Rhonda L.},
   TITLE = {Alphabets of Africa},
   PUBLISHER = {UNESCO \& SIL-Senegal},
   ADDRESS = {Dakar},
   YEAR = {1993},
}

@BOOK{Hedinger2011,
   AUTHOR = {Hedinger, Robert},
   TITLE = {Akoose orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroon and Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation and SIL Cameroon},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@BOOK{HellenthalLojenga2011,
   AUTHOR = {Hellenthal, Anne-Christie and Kutsch Lojenga, Constance},
   TITLE = {Phonology / Orthography statement for the Gwama language},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL International},
   ADDRESS = {Dallas, TX},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@BOOK{HubertMavoungou2010,
   EDITOR = {Hubert, Jacques and Mavoungou, Paul Achille},
   TITLE = {Écriture et standardisastion des langues gabonaises},
   PUBLISHER = {Sun Press},
   ADDRESS = {Stellenbosch},
   YEAR = {2010},
}

@BOOK{ILA1979,
   AUTHOR = {{ILA}},
   TITLE = {Une orthographe pratique des langues ivoiriennes},
   PUBLISHER = {Institut de Linguistique Appliquée, Université d'Abidjan},
   ADDRESS = {Abidjan},
   YEAR = {1979},
}

@ARTICLE{Iornumbe2020,
   AUTHOR = {Iornumbe, Charles},
   TITLE = {The development of a standard and practical orthography for Tiv language},
   JOURNAL = {Journal of the Nigerian Languages Project},
   YEAR = {2020},
   VOLUME = {2},
   PAGES = {47--58},
}

@BOOK{JoswigEtAl2010,
   AUTHOR = {Joswig, Andreas and Ford, David and Neudorf, Andreas and Mohammed, Hussein},
   EDITOR = {{Benishangul-Gumuz Language Development Project}},
   TITLE = {Statement of working orthography [for Borna]},
   ADDRESS = {Assosa, Ethiopia},
   YEAR = {2010},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{Kilpatrick2004,
   AUTHOR = {Kilpatrick, Eileen},
   EDITOR = {Gilley, Leoma},
   TITLE = {Orthographies of Moru-Ma'di languages},
   BOOKTITLE = {Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Sudan},
   ADDRESS = {Entebbe},
   YEAR = {2004},
   PAGES = {85--91},
}

@BOOK{Kinnaird2005,
   AUTHOR = {Kinnaird, William},
   TITLE = {Proposition d'orthographe pour la langue vamé},
   PUBLISHER = {Ministère de la recherche scientifique et de l'innovation et SIL Cameroun},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2005},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{KutschLojenga2014,
   AUTHOR = {Kutsch Lojenga, Constance},
   EDITOR = {Cahill, Michael and Rice, Keren},
   TITLE = {Orthography and tone: A tone system typology with implications for orthography development},
   BOOKTITLE = {Developing orthographies for unwritten languages},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL International},
   ADDRESS = {Dallas},
   YEAR = {2014},
   PAGES = {49--72},
}

@BOOK{Langhout2022,
   AUTHOR = {Langhout, Bep},
   TITLE = {Sari orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroon},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2022},
}

@BOOK{Legbeti2016,
   AUTHOR = {Legbeti, Agnes Temitope},
   TITLE = {An orthography of the Ọ̀sọ́sọ̀ language},
   PUBLISHER = {University of Benin},
   ADDRESS = {Benin City, Nigeria},
   YEAR = {2016},
}

@BOOK{Linton2016,
   AUTHOR = {Linton, Pauline},
   TITLE = {L'orthogaphe du latege: Edition préliminaire},
   PUBLISHER = {Global Outreach Mission},
   ADDRESS = {Léconi, Gabon},
   YEAR = {2016},
}

@BOOK{Lux2018,
   AUTHOR = {Lux, Cindy},
   TITLE = {Nooni orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL and Nooni Language Committee},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2018},
}

@MISC{Madugu,
   AUTHOR = {Madugu, I. S. G.},
   TITLE = {Nupe orthography},
   PAGES = {25--43},
   NOTE = {Institution unknown},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{MannDalby1987,
   AUTHOR = {Mann, Michael and Dalby, David},
   TITLE = {Writing African languages},
   BOOKTITLE = {A thesaurus of African languages: A classified and annotated inventory of the spoken languages of Africa with an appendix on their written representation},
   PUBLISHER = {Hans Zell Publishers},
   ADDRESS = {London},
   YEAR = {1987},
   PAGES = {206--219},
}

@ARTICLE{Mann1969,
   AUTHOR = {Mann, W. M.},
   TITLE = {Tone-marking an African language, with application to Bemba},
   JOURNAL = {African Language Review},
   YEAR = {1969},
   VOLUME = {8},
   PAGES = {98--107},
}

@BOOK{McLean2020a,
   AUTHOR = {McLean, Greg L.},
   TITLE = {Koffa orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {Cameroon Association for Bible Translation and Literacy (CABTAL)},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2020},
}

@BOOK{McLean2020b,
   AUTHOR = {McLean, Greg L.},
   TITLE = {Kwaja orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {Cameroon Association for Bible Translation and Literacy (CABTAL)},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2020},
}

@BOOK{McLean2020c,
   AUTHOR = {McLean, Greg L.},
   TITLE = {Lidzonka orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {Cameroon Association for Bible Translation and Literacy (CABTAL)},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2020},
}

@BOOK{McLean2020d,
   AUTHOR = {McLean, Greg L.},
   TITLE = {Ndǝ Wuli orthography guide},
   EDITION = {3},
   PUBLISHER = {Cameroon Association for Bible Translation and Literacy (CABTAL)},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2020},
}

@BOOK{Mfouhou2022,
   AUTHOR = {Mfouhou, Chrisnah Renaudot},
   TITLE = {Petit guide d'orthographe et de grammaire luumbu parlé dans le Niari en République du Congo},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL-Congo},
   ADDRESS = {Brazzaville},
   YEAR = {2022},
}

@BOOK{Mkounga2022,
   AUTHOR = {Mkounga, Tala Blaise},
   TITLE = {Mungong orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroon},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2022},
}

@BOOK{Mkounga2023,
   AUTHOR = {Mkounga, Tala Blaise},
   TITLE = {Naami orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroon},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2023},
}

@BOOK{Murrell2020,
   AUTHOR = {Murrell, Paul},
   TITLE = {Précis d'orthographe du ngando},
   PUBLISHER = {ACATBA et SIL International},
   ADDRESS = {Bangui},
   YEAR = {2020},
}

@ARTICLE{Nakuma2002,
   AUTHOR = {Nakuma, Constancio K.},
   TITLE = {Guide to the Dagaarhre Orthography},
   JOURNAL = {Journal of Dagaare Studies},
   YEAR = {2002},
   VOLUME = {2},
   PAGES = {1--43},
}

@BOOK{Ngulube2011a,
   AUTHOR = {Ngulube, Isaac Eyi},
   TITLE = {Ekpeye orthography},
   PUBLISHER = {Nigerian Educational Research \& Development Council (NERDC)},
   ADDRESS = {Abuja},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@BOOK{Ngulube2011b,
   AUTHOR = {Ngulube, Isaac Eyi},
   TITLE = {Ogba orthography},
   PUBLISHER = {Nigerian Educational Research \& Development Council (NERDC)},
   ADDRESS = {Abuja},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@BOOK{NjeckAnderson2010,
   AUTHOR = {Njeck, Mathaus M. and Anderson, Stephen C.},
   TITLE = {Bakoko orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {Cameroon Association for Bible Translation and Literacy (CABTAL)},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2010},
}

@BOOK{Njeck2008,
   AUTHOR = {Njeck, Mathaus Mbah},
   TITLE = {Moghamo Orthography Guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé, Cameroon},
   YEAR = {2008},
}

@BOOK{NjeckHedinger2006,
   AUTHOR = {Njeck, Mathaus Mbah and Hedinger, Robert},
   TITLE = {Baba 1 orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroon},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2006},
}

@BOOK{Nzogi2011,
   AUTHOR = {Nzogi, Richard},
   TITLE = {Empandiika ya Ruruuli-Runyala: Ruruuli-Runyala orthography/spelling guide},
   PUBLISHER = {Ruruuli-Runyala Language Society, Luke Partnership Project and SIL Uganda},
   ADDRESS = {Nakasongala, Uganda},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@BOOK{Odom2015,
   AUTHOR = {Odom, Shannon Ronit},
   TITLE = {Zinza orthography statement},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Uganda-Tanzania},
   ADDRESS = {Dar Es Salaam},
   YEAR = {2015},
}

@BOOK{PanSALB2019,
   AUTHOR = {{PanSALB}},
   TITLE = {Milayo ya kupele\glyphbyname{tcircumflexbelow.alt}ele na kun͘walele kwa Tshivenḓa},
   PUBLISHER = {Pan South African Language Board},
   ADDRESS = {Arcadia},
   YEAR = {2019},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{Persson2004,
   AUTHOR = {Persson, Janet},
   EDITOR = {Gilley, Leoma},
   TITLE = {Bongo-Bagirmi languages in Sudan},
   BOOKTITLE = {Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Sudan},
   ADDRESS = {Entebbe},
   YEAR = {2004},
   PAGES = {77--84},
}

@BOOK{Prinz2011,
   AUTHOR = {Prinz, Angela},
   TITLE = {Orthography for the Massalit language},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Chad},
   ADDRESS = {Ndjamena, Cameroon},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@MISC{Pweddon,
   AUTHOR = {Pweddon, Nicholas Nzovudeto},
   TITLE = {Ɓwatye orthography},
   NOTE = {n.d.},
}

@ARTICLE{Roberts2008,
   AUTHOR = {Roberts, David},
   TITLE = {The two Kabiye orthographies: a sociolinguistic and linguistic comparison},
   JOURNAL = {Written Language \& Literacy},
   YEAR = {2008},
   VOLUME = {11},
   NUMBER = {1},
   PAGES = {49--72},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{RobertsForthcoming,
   AUTHOR = {Roberts, David},
   EDITOR = {Winskel, Heather},
   TITLE = {Multilinear featurality in Roman script African orthographies},
   BOOKTITLE = {Handbook of Non-linear writing systems},
   PUBLISHER = {Springer},
   ADDRESS = {Cham},
   YEAR = {in press},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{gla1-robe,
   AUTHOR = {Roberts,David and Basnight-Brown, Dana and Vydrin, Valentin},
   EDITOR = {Haralambous, Yannis},
   TITLE = {{Marking Tone with Punctuation: Orthography Experimentation and Reform in Eastern Dan (Côte d'Ivoire)}},
   BOOKTITLE = {{Proceedings of Graphemics in the 21st Century, Brest 2018}},
   PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
   ADDRESS = {Brest},
   YEAR = {2019},
   PAGES = {293--327},
}

@BOOK{Sampson1985,
   AUTHOR = {Sampson, Geoffrey},
   TITLE = {Writing systems: A linguistic introduction},
   PUBLISHER = {Stanford University Press},
   ADDRESS = {Stanford, CA},
   YEAR = {1985},
}

@ARTICLE{SandeOakley2023,
   AUTHOR = {Sande, Hannah and Oakley, Madeleine},
   TITLE = {A typological survey of the phonological behavior of implosives: Implications for feature theories},
   JOURNAL = {Phonological Data and Analysis},
   YEAR = {2023},
   VOLUME = {5},
   NUMBER = {7},
   PAGES = {1--46},
}

@BOOK{Scherrer2014,
   AUTHOR = {Scherrer, Elaine Marie},
   TITLE = {L'orthographe guemzek : version révisée},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroon},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2014},
}

@BOOK{Schroeder2008,
   AUTHOR = {Schroeder, Leila},
   TITLE = {Bantu Orthography Manual},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL International},
   ADDRESS = {Dallas},
   YEAR = {2008},
}

@BOOK{SIL2001,
   AUTHOR = {{SIL}},
   EDITOR = {{SIL Burkina Faso}},
   TITLE = {Proposition d'une orthographe de la langue toussian},
   ADDRESS = {Ouagadougou},
   YEAR = {2001},
}

@BOOK{SIL2011,
   AUTHOR = {{SIL}},
   TITLE = {Karon orthography: An explanation and justification of the rules of orthography in the Karon language},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Senegal},
   ADDRESS = {Dakar},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@MISC{SILb2012,
   AUTHOR = {{SIL}},
   TITLE = {Phonology \& orthography sketches of South Sudanese languages},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL South Sudan},
   ADDRESS = {Juba},
   YEAR = {2012},
}

@MISC{SILa2017,
   AUTHOR = {{SIL}},
   TITLE = {Apprenons à lire notre langue maintenant},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Burkina Faso},
   ADDRESS = {Ouagadougou},
   YEAR = {2017},
}

@BOOK{Smith2001,
   AUTHOR = {Smith, Tony},
   TITLE = {\‍tetreci{Alphabet et orthographe muyang}},
   PUBLISHER = {\‍tetreci{SIL Cameroon}},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2001},
}

@ARTICLE{Snider1992,
   AUTHOR = {Snider, Keith L.},
   TITLE = {Grammatical tone and orthography},
   JOURNAL = {Notes on Literacy},
   YEAR = {1992},
   VOLUME = {18},
   NUMBER = {4},
   PAGES = {25--30},
}

@BOOK{Stirtz2014,
   AUTHOR = {Stirtz, Timothy M.},
   TITLE = {'Bëlï phonology, tone and orthography},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL International},
   ADDRESS = {Dallas, TX},
   YEAR = {2014},
}

@BOOK{TabbEtAl2011,
   AUTHOR = {Tabb, Waller C. and Bahemuka, Hannington and Wilson, Mubulya A. and Musinguzi, Charles},
   TITLE = {Kitabo kya kuhabula kuhandiika Lubwisi: The Lubwisi spelling guide},
   PUBLISHER = {The Kwamba/Lubwisi Development Association and SIL International},
   ADDRESS = {Bundibugyo},
   YEAR = {2011},
}

@BOOK{Tench,
   AUTHOR = {Tench, Paul},
   TITLE = {A new orthography in Tera},
   PUBLISHER = {Cardiff University Centre for Language and Communication Research},
   ADDRESS = {Cardiff},
}

@ARTICLE{Tucker1949,
   AUTHOR = {Tucker, A. N.},
   TITLE = {Sotho-Nguni orthography and tone-marking},
   JOURNAL = {Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London},
   YEAR = {1949},
   VOLUME = {13},
   NUMBER = {1},
   PAGES = {200--224},
}

@ARTICLE{Tucker1964,
   AUTHOR = {Tucker, A. N.},
   TITLE = {Systems of tone-marking African languages},
   JOURNAL = {Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London},
   YEAR = {1964},
   VOLUME = {27},
   NUMBER = {3},
   PAGES = {594--611},
}

@BOOK{Tuinstra2018,
   AUTHOR = {Tuinstra, Anna},
   TITLE = {Revised Ipulo orthography guide},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroon and Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2018},
}

@BOOK{ViljoenEtAl2009,
   AUTHOR = {Viljoen, Mélanie and Viljoen, Michael and Konai, Pascal and Mbouvai, François and Koyang, Ernest and Deli, Benjamin},
   TITLE = {Précis d'orthographe pour la langue buwal: édition préliminaire},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Cameroun},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2009},
}

@BOOK{VydrinEtAl2019,
   AUTHOR = {Vydrin, Valentin and Zeh, Emmanuel and Nestor, Gué},
   TITLE = {Guide de nouvelle orthographe dan de l'est pour les apprenants familiers avec l'ancienne orthographe},
   PUBLISHER = {EDILIS},
   ADDRESS = {Man},
   YEAR = {2019},
}

@BOOK{WeberWeber2008,
   AUTHOR = {Weber, Joan and Weber, Martin},
   TITLE = {Précise d'orthographe pour la langue kwanja (dialecte Súndàn\glyphbyname{istroke.alt})},
   PUBLISHER = {Église Évangélique Luthérienne du Cameroun et Association Nationale des Comités de Langues Camerounaises},
   ADDRESS = {Yaoundé},
   YEAR = {2008},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{Wiese2011,
   AUTHOR = {Wiese, Richard},
   EDITOR = {van Oostendorp, Marc and Ewen, Colin J. and Hume, Elizabeth and Rice, Keren},
   TITLE = {The representation of rhotics},
   BOOKTITLE = {The Blackwell companion to phonology},
   PUBLISHER = {John Wiley},
   ADDRESS = {Oxford},
   YEAR = {2011},
   PAGES = {1--19},
}

@BOOK{Williamson1984,
   AUTHOR = {Williamson, Kay},
   TITLE = {Practical orthography in Nigeria},
   PUBLISHER = {Heinemann Educational Books},
   ADDRESS = {Ibadan},
   YEAR = {1984},
}

@ARTICLE{YigezuMendisu2015,
   AUTHOR = {Yigezu, Moges and Mendisu, Binyam Sisay},
   TITLE = {The orthography of Hamar},
   JOURNAL = {Studies in Ethiopian Languages},
   YEAR = {2015},
   VOLUME = {4},
   PAGES = {1--16},
}

@INPROCEEDINGS{Yip2004,
   AUTHOR = {Yip, May},
   EDITOR = {Gilley, Leoma},
   TITLE = {Phonology of the These language},
   BOOKTITLE = {Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages},
   PUBLISHER = {SIL Sudan},
   ADDRESS = {Entebbe},
   YEAR = {2004},
   PAGES = {93--117},
}

David A. Roberts (2024), “Multilinear featurality in Roman script African orthographies,” in Proceedings of Grapholinguistics in the 21st Century, 2024 (Yannis Haralambous, Ed.), Grapholinguistics and Its Applications, Vol. 11, Brest: Fluxus Editions, 95–121.


@INPROCEEDINGS{gla11-robe,
   AUTHOR = {David A. Roberts},
   EDITOR = {Haralambous, Yannis},
   TITLE = {{Multilinear featurality in Roman script African orthographies}},
   BOOKTITLE = {{Proceedings of Grapholinguistics in the 21st Century, 2024}},
   SERIES = {{Grapholinguistics and Its Applications}},
   VOLUME = {11},
   PUBLISHER = {Fluxus Editions},
   ADDRESS = {Brest},
   YEAR = {2024},
   PAGES = {95--121},
   DOI = {https://doi.org/10.36824/2024-graf-robe},
}